AP Psychology Test Prep and Key Concepts Overview

threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural response.

How neurotransmitters influence the firing of receiving neurons

cross synapse gap, bind to receptor sites of receiving neurons. depending on the message the neuron will either fire or not.

What is the best way to separate the effects of genes from the effects of the

environment?

separate twins at birth

List reasons why people do not stop smoking

addictive stimulant nicotine is addictive. People who try to quit develop withdrawals such as craving, insomnia, anxiety, irritability

Describe the difference between intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewards

Intrinsic rewards ruin intrinsic motivation. If you get rewards extrinsic motivation grows.

What is learned helplessness, and what psychologist is associated with it?

Learned helplessness is when passive resignation and animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated events. Martin Seligman did an experiment with dogs.

Define cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

What type of psychologists study the mental strategies people use when solving problems?

Cognitive psychologists.

Describe an algorithm as the only way to be absolutely certain that you will find the solution to a problem.

A procedure that guarantees solving a problem. Ex. checking every single item in the store until you find a certain item.

Describe heuristics as a way for experts to save time, while not guaranteeing the solution to problems.

Strategy by making judgments. Ex. going to the breakfast section to find waffles.

Confirmation bias

Search for information that supports our believes and ignore anything that says otherwise.

Define motivation.

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Describe the James-Lange theory

we feel emotion after an act. Ex. we sad cause we cry.

Describe the Cannon-Bard theory

Bod responses and emotions occur separately but simultaneously. Ex. one thing does not cause the other, emotion rising stimuli triggers responses and emotions.

confirmation bias

The tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs and ignore anything that contradicts them.

Describe the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory.

Must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal to feel emotion.

Framing effect

The way a description of two identical products is presented can influence consumer purchasing decisions.

Stress

The process of perceiving and responding to certain events, called stressors, which can be either challenging or threatening.

Effects of stress on the immune system

Hypertension, headaches, increased likelihood of getting a cold, and potential autoimmune reactions.

Defense mechanisms

Protect the ego by reducing anxiety and distorting reality.

Regression

Reverting to infantile habits to feel comfort.

Characteristics of a self-actualized person

Self-aware, self-accepting, open, spontaneous, loving and caring, secure, not concerned with others' opinions, problem-centered, and valuing deep relationships over superficial ones.

Conditions for personality growth (Carl Rogers)

Genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.

Brain arousal levels of extraverts and introverts

Extraverts have lower brain arousal than introverts.

Reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

What do people do when they are experiencing the self-serving bias?

See themselves better than others, accept responsibility for good more than bad.

What role does the self-affirming thinking play in the self-serving bias?

They try to repair their mood which feeds their feeling of being better.

Define generalized anxiety disorder in terms of how often the patient feels intense fear (to distinguish it from panic disorder).

person is continually tense, in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

Define generalized anxiety disorder in terms of the reasons the patient feels intense fear (to distinguish it from phobia and post-traumatic stress disorder).

Excessive worry and fear about everyday things, including finances, health, and the future. These worries are persistent, often unrealistic, and difficult to control, leading to a constant feeling of being overwhelmed and on edge

Define panic disorder in terms of how often the patient feels intense fear (to distinguish it from generalized anxiety disorder).

Unpredictable episodes of intense dread that last a minute. Feeling chest pain, choking, frightening sensations.

Define panic disorder in terms of the reasons the patient feels intense fear (to

distinguish it from phobia and post-traumatic stress disorder).

The person with panic disorder is anxious about having a heart attack, it is not a phobia (irrational fear, avoiding things), or pstd (haunting memories.)

Describe the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Unwanted thoughts and actions. Ex. concern with germs, death/illness, order/neatness/cleanliness. Ex. excessive hand washing, in and out repeat, checking everything

Describe some compulsive behaviors of someone who has obsessive thoughts of concern about dirt, germs, or toxins

They would wash a lot, clean a lot,

How does the psychoanalytic perspective view phobias in terms of repression and displacement?

People repress intolerable thoughts, feelings, impulses, which could cause anxiety.

How does Natural Selection provide evidence that human fears have evolved with humans?

Depending on the situation, fear of flying may come from fear of heights. Phobias focus on dangers faced by our ancestors.

Name some things for which humans are more likely to develop a phobia. Name some things for which humans are less likely to develop a phobia.

Certain animals, natural events (ex thunderstorms), specific objects, events/situations like blood, heights. Not likely for light or colors.

Describe how someone may learn to generalize a learned fear of one thing into a phobia of something similar.

Classical conditioning, people begin to fear similar situations and stimuli.

What feeling leads to the symptoms of dissociative identity disorder and anxiety disorders, according to both psychoanalytic and learning theorists?

Detachment/disconnection between oneself and surroundings.

Describe how common depression is in relation to other psychological disorders.

relation with anxiety, mania, and bipolar disorder

Describe the distinctive pattern of mood swings associated with bipolar disorder.

Alternating between a happy state of mania and depression week to week.

Describe systemic disorder in terms of the minimum period of time that the patient feels depressed (contrast the time period with major depressive disorder).

Mild depression for at LEAST 2 years + mild symptoms

Major depression is 2 weeks or more and major symptoms

Which neurotransmitters are sometimes scarce during depression?

Norepinephrine and serotonin.

Describe the family background that is associated with anorexia nervosa patients and bulimia nervosa patients.

Anorexia parents tend to be competitive, protective, and high achieving. Bulimia parents have had child obesity, and have negative self evaluation.

Describe some things that both anorexia and bulimia have in common.

obsessed with being skinny and often purged to lose weight.

Describe some of the life experiences of someone diagnosed as an antisocial adult.

lack of consciousness, beings to lie, steal, fight, or show sexual behavior. When grown up unable to keep a job, irresponsible spouse/parent, assault/criminal.

Contrast the level of fear and autonomic arousal of normal people and people with antisocial personality disorder.

Slower heart rate less autonomic arousal for people with antisocial disorder and experience lower levels of fear

Discuss some of the common criticisms of psychoanalysis.

lack of empirical support, determinism, and gender bias.

Which type of psychotherapy would be most likely to use the following techniques: Free association, interpretation of dreams, hypnosis

Psychoanalytic.

Major Depressive Disorder

A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest, differing from bipolar disorder.

Describe the therapeutic technique called free association.

expressing thoughts and feelings without guidance.

What is the emphasis of humanistic therapy?

Individual potential and growth, self-actualization, taking responsibility, conscious thoughts, present and future are more important than past.

Describe some of the characteristics of humanistic therapy (is it directive or

nondirective?)

Non directive, focuses on self perceptions where the therapist does not judge or interpret.

Describe the therapeutic technique called active listening.

listener echos, restates, and clarifies what the person expresses.

Describe a token economy

people earn a token for doing a desired behavior and can change that token for item or privileges.

Discuss some of the common criticisms of behavior therapy.

does not address trauma or deep patterns, ignores a persons experiences.

Mood Swings in Bipolar Disorder

Distinctive patterns of alternating between a happy state of mania and depression on a week-to-week basis.

Describe attribution theory

we can explain someones behavior by the situation or their dispositional attribution such as stable enduring traits.

Given a description of an experiment that demonstrates fundamental attribution error, describe the responses of most subjects

Overestimate the influence of personality and fail to think about the situation. Ex. honking at a car for speeding, not knowing they may be speeding cuz of an emergency.

Describe the relationships between attitudes and actions

Attitudes affect actions, actions affect attitudes. Ex. if we believe something we feel something after.

How often do attitudes and actions correspond?

Attitudes correspond more with actions.

Describe cognitive dissonance, and tell when it is more likely and less likely to occur

We act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two thoughts are inconsistent. Ex. Changing our attitudes to fit with our actions.

Describe Solomon Asch's conformity studies, and describe the conditions that

produced increased conformity.

hen more people agree with one answer you feel doubt on your answer. so you adjust your behavior/thinking (conformity) to fit the group.

Describe Stanley Milgram's obedience study, i.e. How did the majority of subjects respond? What conditions made it less likely that subjects would follow orders?

Electric shocks if person gets thing wrong. Most of the subjects followed directions. When experimenter was gone people would less likely follow orders, being with people who wanted to stop, reminded they were responsible for their actions.

What were Stanley Milgram's conclusions about obedience?

Ordinary people are highly susceptible to obeying authority figures, even when the commands involve causing harm or violating their moral values

What situations are more likely to promote groupthink?

overconfidence, conformity, self justification, unrealistic ideas.

Define ingroup bias

tend to favor our own group. divide into us vs them.

Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?

~ define mere exposure effect, and explain how it supports or refutes the old adage,

"familiarity breeds contempt"

repeated exposure to novel stimuli (environmental changes/sensory) increases liking them.

List the factors that lead to attraction (blue titles), and determine which one is the most powerful predictor of friendship

proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity, passionate love, companionate love. Similarity and attractiveness.

Which of these old adages is supported by research on attraction, and which is not supported? "birds of a feather flock together" or "opposites attract"

Birds of a feather are supported opposites are onto supported.

List the health benefits of aerobic exercise.

improved heart health, reduced risk of chronic diseases, better mood.

What do we know about other species' capacity for language?

~ What do critics of ape language learning say to support their belief that animals can not

learn language?

lack the cognitive and physical capabilities to truly learn and use language in the same way humans do