how are Genes, DNA, and Chromosomes related?

Chromosomes are made of DNA and Genes are made of Chromosomes.

DNA

Made of subunits called nucleotides, Have Deoxyribose as their sugar, And is the shape of a double helix

RNA

Made up of subunits called nucleotides, Has ribose as their sugar, and its shape depends on the type of RNA.

Nucleotide structure

Made up of a sugar, phosphate group, and a base nitrogen.

Base pair rules for DNA

Adenine pairs with Thymine, Guanine pairs with cytosine.

base pair rules for RNA

Adenine pairs with uracil, Guanine pairs with cytosine.

DNA Helicase

this enzyme binds to a replication origin on the DNA and begins unwinding the DNA helix by breaking hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.

topoisomerase

Works ahead of the Helicase cutting the sugar phosphate backbones of one or both DNA strands.

single stranded binding proteins

Binds to the single strands of DNA at the fork and prevents them from rejoining.

RNA primase

this enzyme builds short complementary segments of RNA (primers) on template strands

DNA polymerase III

Adds Nucleotides at the end of RNA Primers.

Nucleotide Triphosphates

provides energy needed by DNa poly III to catalyze the senthesis reaction that adds a DNa nucleotide to the newly forming strand

leading strand

DNA strand built in the direction of the replication fork

lagging strand

built in the opposite direction of the replication fork

DNA polymerase I

removes every RNA nucleotide in each primer and replaces them with the appropriate Nucleotides

DNA ligase

joins unattached sections of DNA by phosphodiester bonds between them

Exonucleus

proofreaders during DNA polymerisation in DNA replication

DNa replication

the process by which the genome's DNA is copied in cells.

Okazaki fragments

short sections of DNA formed at the time of discontinuous synthesis of the lagging strand during replication of DNA

mRNA

singlestranded, carries instructions from nucleus to robosomes . Is located in the nucleus .

tRNA

hair pin shape, brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis. located in cytoplasm .

rRNa

ribosomes are made of rRNa and proteins. located in the nucleus.

does translation/Protein synthesis happen

happens in ribosome in cytoplasm or rough ER

what type of nucleic acids are involved in translation?

amino acids

what is a mutation?

Changes in DNA that affects an organism’s physical characteristics.

Asexual reproduction

Offspring created **without fusion** of gametes.

Genes come from **ONE individual**

Sexual reproduction

Offspring created created by **union of male and female gametes** (egg and sperm)

type of cells

Diploid, Haploid

Haploid

when the egg and sperm cells fuse in the process of fertilization

Diploid

containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

advantages of sexual reproduction

genetic variation and ability to adapt

purpose of meiosis

to produce gametes, the sperm and eggs, with half of the genetic complement of the parent cells.

crossing over

a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same type are lined up

what is produced at the end of crossing over?

a hybrid chromosome with a unique pattern of genetic material

where do offspring get their chromosomes

they obtain half from each parent

nondisjunction

the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division

genotype

the genetic makeup of an organism

phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual

Gregor Mendel’s contribution

he discovered the 3 laws of inheritance

Gregor Mendel’s 3 principles from his work.

the Law of Dominance and Uniformity, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment

Law of Dominance an Uniformity

some alleles, which are variants of a particular gene found at the same chromosomal locus or location, are dominant over the other alleles for a given gene.

Law of Segregation

alleles segregate randomly into gametes-alleles of one trait had no influence of another.

Law of Independent Assortment.

the alleles of a gene for one trait segregate independently of the alleles of a gene for another trait

complete dominance

in the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele in heterozygous conditions

incomplete dominance

results from a cross in which each parental contribution is genetically unique and gives rise to progeny whose phenotype is intermediate

codominance

a type of inheritance in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual

multiple alleles

Three or more possible phenotypes or genotypes for the same trait.

sexlinked inheritance

characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes

Taxonomy

science of classifying living things

How to make scientific name

using the system that describes the genus and species of the organism. The first word is the genus and the second is the species. The first word is capitalized and the second is not.

what are the 6 kingdoms

Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista

kingdom Plantae

Multiellular,Autotrophic through photosynthesis.Have cell walls made off cellulose and large central vacuole

Kingdom Animalia

Muticellular, 0 cell walls, They are heterotrophic, Aqutic and terrestrial.

Kingdom Fungi

Eukaryotic,Multi/unicellular. Heterotrophic, Have cell walls made of Chitin. Terrestrial and by dead damp stuff

Kingdom Eubacteria

Unicellular,Prokaryotic. Asexually through binary fission. Has Peptidoglycan in their cell wall.

Kingdom Archaebacteria

unicellular,Prokaryotic. Have cell walls with 0 Peptidoglycans. Found in extreme enviornments.

Kingdom Protista

Kingdom of things that dont belong in any other kingdoms.

Some have cell walls some dont. Both heterotrophic and photosynthetic, Uni/Multicellular, sexually and asexually. Found in aquatic and terrestrial.

carl Linnaeus

"Father of Taxonomy"; established his classification of living things;

why have changes been made to the taxonomic group over the years?

scientist make discoveries.

first life forms on earth and why?

Prokaryotes because they could perform photosynthesis.

order of major vertrate groups appearance in the fossil record

Fishes, amphibians, mammals and reptiles

major evolutionary events:

photosynthesis, amniotic egg, exoskeleton, first eukaryotes, first vertibrates, first cells, earths formation, humans

natural selection

a process whereby species which have traits that enable them to adapt in an environment survive and reproduce, and then pass on their genes to the next generation

how do mutations occur that lead to natural selection?

If a trait is advantageous and helps the individual survive and reproduce

causes of evolutionary change

mutation, non-random mating, gene flow, and natural selection

what does being “fittest” in natural selection mean

organisms best adjusted to their environment are the most successful in surviving and reproducing

evolution

the process by which species adapt over time in response to their changing environment

3 types of natural selection

directional selection, stabilizing selection, or disruptive selection

what is ecology

the scientific study of interactions among organisms with each other and with the environment

Primary succession

on land where no soil previously existed 

secondary succession

occurs in an area where soil exists,but has been damaged or disturbed(EX- a change to an existing community that does not affect the soil.

producer

Autotrophs- produce energy by capturing sunlight or using chemicals(EX- plants,algae,and some bacti

consumer

Heterotrophs-organisms that consume other organisms for food(EX-rabbit,cat,fish

goals of competition

to survive and produce the mos offspring

Mutualism

a type of symbiotic relationship where all species involved benefit from their interactions

parasitism

Association between two different organisms wherein one benefits at the expense of the other

commensalism

a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter

predation

one organism kills and consumes another

food chain

a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food

food web

big web of food chains

energy pyramid

Diagram that shows the amount of energy stored in trophic levels(shows how energy moves through levels and how food chain works.)

10% law

90% of the energy left behind at each level

limiting factors

density dependant, density independant

density dependent

 any force that affects the size of a population of living things in response to the density of the population 

density independent

earth quakes floods tornadoes ect

abiotic

nonliving things

biotic

living organisms

Niche

the entire amount of conditions that an organism can endure

habbitat

where things live

invasive species

brought to a new habitat by human means.They could kill off entire species or help them

coevolution

back and forth evolutionary adjustments between species. it produces balance between communities.

order of levels of organization

Individual/species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere.

erosion

in carbon cycle when carbon dioxide is returned to the ground and limestone is broken down

combustion

burning of fossil fuels in carbon cycle

nitrogen fixation

bacteria combine hydrogen and nitrogen to make a amonea in the nitrgoen cycle.

percipitation

returning waqter back to earth in water cycle